It is well established that many medically significant biological processes are mediated by proteins participating in signal transduction pathways that involve G-proteins and/or second messengers; e.g., cAMP (Lefkowitz, Nature, 1991, 351:353–354). Herein these proteins are referred to as proteins participating in pathways with G-proteins. Some examples of these proteins include the GPC receptors; such as those for adrenergic agents and dopamine (Kobilka, B. K., et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA, 1987, 84:46–50; Kobilka, B. K., et al., Science, 1987, 238:650–656; Bunzow, J. R., et al., Nature, 1988, 336:783–787), G-proteins themselves, effector proteins, e.g., phospholipase C, adenylate cyclase, and phosphodiesterase, and actuator proteins, e.g., protein kinase A and protein kinase C (Simon, M. I., et al., Science, 1991, 252:802–8).
For example, in one form of signal transduction, upon hormone binding to a GPCR the receptor interacts with the heterotrimeric G-protein and induces the dissociation of GDP from the guanine nucleotide-binding site. At normal cellular concentrations of guanine nucleotides, GTP fills the site immediately. Binding of GTP to the α subunit of the G-protein causes the dissociation of the G-protein from the receptor and the dissociation of the G-protein into α and βγ subunits. The GTP-carrying form then binds to activated adenylate cyclase. Hydrolysis of GTP to GDP, catalyzed by the G-protein itself (α subunit possesses an intrinsic GTPase activity), returns the G-protein to its basal, inactive form. The GTPase activity of the α subunit is, in essence, an internal dock that controls an on/off switch. The GDP bound form of the α subunit has high affinity for βγ and subsequent reassociation of αGDP with βγ returns the system to the basal state. Thus the G-protein serves a dual role, as an intermediate that relays the signal from receptor to effector (in this example adenylate cyclase), and as a dock that controls the duration of the signal.
The membrane bound superfamily of G-protein coupled receptors has been characterized as having seven putative transmembrane domains. The domains are believed to represent transmembrane α-helices connected by extracellular or cytoplasmic loops. G-protein coupled receptors include a wide range of biologically active receptors, such as hormone, viral, growth factor and neuroreceptors.
The G-protein coupled receptor family includes dopamine receptors which bind to neuroleptic drugs used for treating CNS disorders. Other examples of members of this family include, but are not limited to calcitonin, adrenergic, neuropeptideY, somastotatin, neurotensin, neurokinin, capsaicin, VIP, CGRP, CRF, CCK, bradykinin, galanin, motilin, nociceptin, endothelin, cAMP, adenosine, muscarinic, acetylcholine, serotonin, histamine, thrombin, kinin, follicle stimulating hormone, opsin, endothelial differentiation gene-1, rhodopsin, odorant, and cytomegalovirus receptors.
Most G-protein coupled receptors have single conserved cysteine residues in each of the first two extracellular loops which form disulfide bonds that are believed to stabilize functional protein structures. The 7 transmembrane regions are designated as TM1, TM2, TM3, TM4, TM5, TM6 and TM7. The cytoplasmic loop which connects TM5 and TM6 may be a major component of the G-protein binding domain.
Most G-protein coupled receptors contain potential phosphorylation sites within the third cytoplasmic loop and/or the carboxy terminus. For several G-protein coupled receptors, such as the β-adrenoreceptor, phosphorylation by protein kinase A and/or specific receptor kinases mediates receptor desensitization.
Recently, it was discovered that certain GPCRs, like the calcitonin-receptor like receptor, might interact with small single pass membrane proteins called receptor activity modifying proteins (RAMP's). This interaction of the GPCR with a certain RAMP is determining which natural ligands have relevant affinity for the GPCR-RAMP combination and regulate the functional signaling activity of the complex (McLathie, L. M. et al., Nature (1998) 393:333–339).
For some receptors, the ligand binding sites of G-protein coupled receptors are believed to comprise hydrophilic sockets formed by several G-protein coupled receptor transmembrane domains, said sockets being surrounded by hydrophobic residues of the G-protein coupled receptors. The hydrophilic side of each G-protein coupled receptor transmembrane helix is postulated to face inward and form a polar ligand-binding site. TM3 has been implicated in several G-protein coupled receptors as having a ligand-binding sit, such as the TM3 aspartate residue. TM5 serines, a TM6 asparagine and TM6 or TM7 phenylalanines or tyrosines are also implicated in ligand binding.
G-protein coupled receptors can be intracellularly coupled by heterotrimeric G-proteins to various intracellular enzymes, ion channels and transporters (see, Johnson et al., Endoc. Rev., 1989, 10:317–331). Different G-protein α-subunits preferentially stimulate particular effectors to modulate various biological functions in a cell. Phosphorylation of cytoplasmic residues of G-protein coupled receptors has been identified as an important mechanism for the regulation of G-protein coupling of some G-protein coupled receptors. G-protein coupled receptors are found in numerous sites within a mammalian host.
Receptors—primarily the GPCR class—have led to more than half of the currently known drugs (Drews, Nature Biotechnology, 1996, 14: 1516). This indicates that these receptors have an established, proven history as therapeutic targets. Clearly there is a need for identification and characterization of further receptors which can play a role in preventing, ameliorating or correcting dysfunctions or diseases, including, but not limited to PNS, psychiatric and CNS disorders, including schizophrenia, episodic paroxysmal anxiety (EPA) disorders such as obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), phobia and panic, major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, Parkinson's disease, general anxiety disorder, autism, delirium, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer disease/dementia and other neurodegenerative diseases, severe mental retardation, dyskinesias, Huntington's disease, Tourett's syndrome, tics, tremor, dystonia, spasms, anorexia, bulimia, stroke, addiction/dependency/craving, sleep disorder, epilepsy, migraine; attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD); cardiovascular diseases, including heart failure, angina pectoris, arrhythmias, myocardial infarction, cardiac hypertrophy, hypotension, hypertension—e.g. essential hypertension, renal hypertension, or pulmonary hypertension, thrombosis, arteriosclerosis, cerebral vasospasm, subarachnoid hemorrhage, cerebral ischemia, cerebral infarction, peripheral vascular disease, Raynaud's disease, kidney disease—e.g. renal failure; dyslipidemias; obesity; emesis; gastrointestinal disorders, including irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), gastroesophagal reflux disease (GERD), motility disorders and conditions of delayed gastric emptying, such as post operative or diabetic gastroparesis, and diabetes, ulcers—e.g. gastric ulcer, diarrhoea: other diseases including osteoporosis; inflammations; infections such as bacterial, fungal, protozoan and viral infections, particularly infections caused by HIV-1 or HIV-2; pain; cancers; chemotherapy induced injury; tumor invasion; immune disorders; urinary retention; asthma; allergies; arthritis; benign prostatic hypertrophy; endotoxin shock; sepsis; complication of diabetes mellitus; and gynaecological disorders.